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  • Previous and ongoing clinical trials have been summarized

    2021-05-11

    Previous and ongoing clinical trials have been summarized in a recent review (Siaw-Debrah et al., 2017). To our knowledge, there are no ongoing or completed clinical trials focusing on cytokines in ICH. Published studies have focused mainly on cytokine changes in ICH patients (summarized in Table 3). The current challenge will be successful translation of preclinical experiments to clinical trials.
    Concluding remarks
    Acknowledgments
    Introduction Heart diseases are theleading cause of mortality and morbidity in the developed world [1]. According to the European Heart Network, 47% of all deaths in Europe are caused by SMER 3 diseases [2] and according to the American Heart Association, prevalence of heart diseases will continue to increase. It is believed that by year 2030, more than 116 million people in United States will develop a form of heart disease [3]. The term heart disease includes a wide range of conditions that affect the heart function, the most notorious of which is atherosclerotic coronary disease caused by, atherosclerosis, a chronic inflammatory condition that is characterized by reduced blood flow through the coronary artery [4]. Atherosclerotic plaque builds up in the arterial wall causing occlusion of the vessel. While traditional therapeutic approaches for heart diseases include broad-spectrum angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, angiotensin II receptor blockers, beta-adrenergic blocking agents etc., a modern approach focuses on designing drugs to inhibit specific mediators and cytokines in the inflammatory pathway. The therapeutic strategy of these drugs is to either block pro-inflammatory cytokines or facilitate delivery of anti-inflammatory cytokines [5]. Cytokines have emerged as important biomarkers for local and systematic inflammation in various cardiovascular diseases. To help diagnose cardiovascular diseases, pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines are used. Therapies that use or target cytokines for patients with cardiovascular diseases are usually noninvasive treatments and aim to prevent the loss of cardiomyocytes and/or regenerate damaged tissues. Additionally, these treatments are used in conjunction with mechanical revascularization or cell therapies to cure the damaged tissues by indirectly stimulating progenitor cells [5,6]. In this review, we summarize studies on cytokines that are used as therapeutic agents and therapeutic targets for heart diseases and the latest clinical trials with these cytokines (see Fig. 1).
    Cytokines as therapeutic agents for heart diseases
    Cytokines as therapeutic targets for heart disease therapies
    Future trends
    Conflict of interest
    Acknowledgements Author AD was supported by the Baltic-American Freedom Foundation and by the Riga Technical University, Latvia through the Scientific Research Project Competition for Young Researchers No. ZP-2017/20.
    Introduction IL-12 family cytokines are pleiotropic immunological playmakers that coordinate innate and adaptive immune responses mainly via regulation of T-cell populations [1], [2]. The structural and functional hallmark of IL-12 family cytokines is manifested via cross-utilization of α- and β-cytokine subunits leading to heterodimeric cytokines, and subsequent sharing of signaling receptors (Fig. 1). Since the discovery of the archetypal family member IL-12 [3], [4] the family steadily grew to include IL-23 [5], IL-27 [6], and IL-35 [7], and more recently IL-39 [8]. For instance, the archetypal IL-12 comprises a p35 helical-bundle subunit (IL-12p35), which is disulfide-linked to a p40 subunit (IL-12p40). The latter is shared with IL-23 which recruits a unique p19 helical bundle subunit (IL-23p19) thereby defining a key structural and functional divergence within the IL-12 family. In this way, IL-12 and IL-23 exhibit dichotomous functionalities by virtue of recruiting specific and shared receptors, respectively (Fig. 1). Nevertheless, the possibility for expanded mix-and-match scenarios of cytokine subunits and utilization of signaling receptors covering a broad spectrum of immune responses has been called upon [2], [9].